CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Comprehensive Study Notes for Malawi Secondary School Form 3 & Form 4
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1.1 What is a Chemical Reaction?
A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances (called reactants) are changed into one or more new substances (called products). During a chemical reaction, the atoms in the reactants are rearranged to form products with different properties.
Key Point: In a chemical reaction, new substances are formed. This is different from a physical change where no new substance is formed.
1.2 Physical Changes vs Chemical Changes
It is important to understand the difference between physical and chemical changes:
Physical Changes:
- No new substance is formed
- The change can usually be reversed easily
- Only the physical properties change (size, shape, state)
- Examples: melting ice, dissolving sugar in water, breaking glass, boiling water
Chemical Changes (Chemical Reactions):
- New substances are formed
- The change is usually difficult to reverse
- Chemical properties change
- Examples: burning wood, rusting of iron, cooking an egg, digestion of food
1.3 Evidence of Chemical Reactions
How do we know a chemical reaction has occurred? Look for these signs:
1. Colour Change
- When iron rusts, it changes from grey to reddish-brown
- When copper is heated in air, it turns from reddish-brown to black
2. Gas Production (Effervescence)
- Bubbles or fizzing indicate gas is being produced
- Example: When you add vinegar to baking soda, carbon dioxide gas is produced
3. Precipitate Formation
- A precipitate is a solid that forms when two solutions are mixed
- Example: When silver nitrate solution is added to sodium chloride solution, a white precipitate of silver chloride forms
4. Temperature Change
- The mixture may become hotter (exothermic reaction)
- The mixture may become cooler (endothermic reaction)
- Example: When calcium oxide is added to water, the mixture becomes very hot
5. Light Production
- Some reactions produce light
- Example: Burning magnesium produces a bright white light
1.4 Reactants and Products
In every chemical reaction:
- Reactants are the starting substances (what you begin with)
- Products are the new substances formed (what you end up with)
Example:
When hydrogen burns in oxygen, water is formed.
- Reactants: Hydrogen and Oxygen
- Product: Water
1.5 Word Equations
A word equation is a simple way to represent a chemical reaction using words.
Format:
Reactant(s) → Product(s)
The arrow (→) means "reacts to form" or "produces"
Examples:
- Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
- Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide
- Calcium carbonate → Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
- Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium chloride
Practice Tip: Always write reactants on the left side of the arrow and products on the right side.
1.6 Chemical Equations
A chemical equation uses chemical formulas and symbols instead of words to represent a reaction.
Examples:
- 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
- 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO
- CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂
- 2Na + Cl₂ → 2NaCl
Important: The numbers in front of formulas (like the 2 in 2H₂) are called coefficients. They tell us how many molecules or moles of each substance are involved.
1.7 State Symbols
State symbols show the physical state of each substance in a reaction:
- (s) = solid
- (l) = liquid
- (g) = gas
- (aq) = aqueous (dissolved in water)
Example with state symbols:
CaCO₃(s) → CaO(s) + CO₂(g)
This tells us that solid calcium carbonate breaks down to form solid calcium oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
Worked Example 1.1
Question: Write a word equation and chemical equation for the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid to produce zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.
Solution:
Word equation:
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid → Zinc chloride + Hydrogen
Chemical equation:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl₂(aq) + H₂(g)
Practice Problems 1.1
- Write word equations for:
- a) Carbon burning in oxygen to form carbon dioxide
- b) Iron reacting with sulfur to form iron sulfide
- Identify whether each change is physical or chemical:
- a) Melting butter
- b) Burning paper
- c) Rusting of a nail
- d) Dissolving salt in water
Answers:
- a) Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide
- b) Iron + Sulfur → Iron sulfide
- a) Physical
- b) Chemical
- c) Chemical
- d) Physical
TOPIC 2: BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
2.1 The Law of Conservation of Mass
The Law of Conservation of Mass states that:
"Matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction."
This means:
- The total mass of reactants = The total mass of products
- The number of atoms of each element must be the same on both sides of the equation
- Atoms are rearranged, not created or destroyed
2.2 Why Balance Chemical Equations?
Chemical equations must be balanced to obey the Law of Conservation of Mass. An unbalanced equation does not accurately represent what happens in a reaction.
Unbalanced equation:
H₂ + O₂ → H₂O
This is wrong because:
- Left side: 2 hydrogen atoms, 2 oxygen atoms
- Right side: 2 hydrogen atoms, 1 oxygen atom
- Oxygen atoms are not equal!
Balanced equation:
2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
Now:
- Left side: 4 hydrogen atoms, 2 oxygen atoms
- Right side: 4 hydrogen atoms, 2 oxygen atoms
- Balanced! ✓
2.3 Steps for Balancing Chemical Equations
Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation with correct formulas
Step 2: Count the number of atoms of each element on both sides
Step 3: Add coefficients (numbers in front of formulas) to balance the atoms
- Start with the most complex molecule
- Balance metals first, then non-metals, then hydrogen and oxygen last
- Never change the subscripts in formulas (the small numbers)
Step 4: Check that all atoms are balanced
Step 5: Make sure all coefficients are in the lowest whole number ratio
2.4 Important Rules
- Never change subscripts (the small numbers in formulas like H₂O)
- Only add coefficients (numbers in front of formulas)
- Use whole numbers only (not fractions in final answer)
- Keep polyatomic ions together when they appear on both sides
Worked Example 2.1
Question: Balance the equation: Fe + O₂ → Fe₂O₃
Solution:
Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation
Fe + O₂ → Fe₂O₃
Step 2: Count atoms
- Left: 1 Fe, 2 O
- Right: 2 Fe, 3 O
Step 3: Balance Fe first
2Fe + O₂ → Fe₂O₃
- Left: 2 Fe, 2 O
- Right: 2 Fe, 3 O
Step 4: Balance O
We need 6 oxygen atoms on each side (lowest common multiple of 2 and 3)
4Fe + 3O₂ → 2Fe₂O₃
Step 5: Check
- Left: 4 Fe, 6 O
- Right: 4 Fe, 6 O ✓
Answer: 4Fe + 3O₂ → 2Fe₂O₃
Worked Example 2.2
Question: Balance: C₃H₈ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
Solution:
Step 1: C₃H₈ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
Step 2: Count atoms
- Left: 3 C, 8 H, 2 O
- Right: 1 C, 2 H, 3 O
Step 3: Balance C
C₃H₈ + O₂ → 3CO₂ + H₂O
- Right now has: 3 C, 2 H, 7 O
Step 4: Balance H
C₃H₈ + O₂ → 3CO₂ + 4H₂O
- Right now has: 3 C, 8 H, 10 O
Step 5: Balance O
C₃H₈ + 5O₂ → 3CO₂ + 4H₂O
Step 6: Check
- Left: 3 C, 8 H, 10 O
- Right: 3 C, 8 H, 10 O ✓
Answer: C₃H₈ + 5O₂ → 3CO₂ + 4H₂O
Worked Example 2.3
Question: Balance with state symbols: Na(s) + H₂O(l) → NaOH(aq) + H₂(g)
Solution:
Step 1: Count atoms
- Left: 1 Na, 2 H, 1 O
- Right: 1 Na, 3 H, 1 O
Step 2: Balance H by balancing Na and H₂O
2Na(s) + 2H₂O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H₂(g)
Step 3: Check
- Left: 2 Na, 4 H, 2 O
- Right: 2 Na, 4 H, 2 O ✓
Answer: 2Na(s) + 2H₂O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H₂(g)
Practice Problems 2.1
Balance the following equations:
- N₂ + H₂ → NH₃
- Al + O₂ → Al₂O₃
- CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
- Fe + HCl → FeCl₂ + H₂
- Ca + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + H₂
Answers:
- N₂ + 3H₂ → 2NH₃
- 4Al + 3O₂ → 2Al₂O₃
- CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O
- Fe + 2HCl → FeCl₂ + H₂
- Ca + 2H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + H₂
Summary: Balancing Equations
- Chemical equations must be balanced to obey the Law of Conservation of Mass
- Only add coefficients; never change subscripts
- Balance the most complex molecule first
- Check your work by counting atoms on both sides
- Use whole numbers in lowest ratio
TOPIC 3: TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Chemical reactions can be classified into different types based on how atoms are rearranged. Understanding these types helps us predict products and write equations more easily.
3.1 Combination (Synthesis) Reactions
Definition: Two or more substances combine to form a single product.
General form: A + B → AB
Characteristics:
- Two or more reactants
- One product
- Elements or simple compounds combine
Examples:
- Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
- 2Mg(s) + O₂(g) → 2MgO(s)
- 4Fe(s) + 3O₂(g) → 2Fe₂O₃(s)
- Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metal oxide
- C(s) + O₂(g) → CO₂(g)
- S(s) + O₂(g) → SO₂(g)
- Metal + Non-metal → Salt
- 2Na(s) + Cl₂(g) → 2NaCl(s)
- Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)
- Metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide
- CaO(s) + H₂O(l) → Ca(OH)₂(aq)
- Na₂O(s) + H₂O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
- Non-metal oxide + Water → Acid
- CO₂(g) + H₂O(l) → H₂CO₃(aq)
- SO₂(g) + H₂O(l) → H₂SO₃(aq)
3.2 Decomposition Reactions
Definition: A single compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances.
General form: AB → A + B
Characteristics:
- One reactant
- Two or more products
- Usually requires heat, light, or electricity
Examples:
- Thermal decomposition of carbonates
- CaCO₃(s) → CaO(s) + CO₂(g)
- ZnCO₃(s) → ZnO(s) + CO₂(g)
- Thermal decomposition of hydroxides
- Ca(OH)₂(s) → CaO(s) + H₂O(g)
- 2Fe(OH)₃(s) → Fe₂O₃(s) + 3H₂O(g)
- Thermal decomposition of nitrates
- 2KNO₃(s) → 2KNO₂(s) + O₂(g)
- 2Pb(NO₃)₂(s) → 2PbO(s) + 4NO₂(g) + O₂(g)
- Electrolysis (decomposition using electricity)
- 2H₂O(l) → 2H₂(g) + O₂(g)
- 2NaCl(l) → 2Na(l) + Cl₂(g)
Memory Tip: Decomposition is the opposite of combination. If you heat or apply energy to a compound, it may break apart.
3.3 Single Displacement (Substitution) Reactions
Definition: One element replaces another element in a compound.
General form: A + BC → AC + B
Characteristics:
- One element and one compound as reactants
- One element and one compound as products
- A more reactive element displaces a less reactive element
Examples:
- Metal displacing another metal from a compound
- Zn(s) + CuSO₄(aq) → ZnSO₄(aq) + Cu(s)
- Mg(s) + FeSO₄(aq) → MgSO₄(aq) + Fe(s)
- Fe(s) + CuSO₄(aq) → FeSO₄(aq) + Cu(s)
- Metal displacing hydrogen from acid
- Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl₂(aq) + H₂(g)
- Mg(s) + H₂SO₄(aq) → MgSO₄(aq) + H₂(g)
- 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl₃(aq) + 3H₂(g)
- Metal displacing hydrogen from water
- 2Na(s) + 2H₂O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H₂(g)
- Ca(s) + 2H₂O(l) → Ca(OH)₂(aq) + H₂(g)
- Halogen displacing another halogen
- Cl₂(g) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br₂(aq)
- Cl₂(g) + 2NaI(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + I₂(aq)
Reactivity Series (Most reactive to least reactive):
Metals: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au
Halogens: F, Cl, Br, I
Rule: A more reactive element can displace a less reactive element from its compound.
3.4 Double Displacement (Double Decomposition) Reactions
Definition: Two compounds exchange ions or atoms to form two new compounds.
General form: AB + CD → AD + CB
Characteristics:
- Two compounds as reactants
- Two compounds as products
- Ions are exchanged between compounds
Examples:
- Precipitation reactions
- AgNO₃(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO₃(aq)
- Pb(NO₃)₂(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI₂(s) + 2KNO₃(aq)
- BaCl₂(aq) + Na₂SO₄(aq) → BaSO₄(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
- Neutralisation reactions (see next section)
Memory Tip: In double displacement, the positive ions (cations) swap partners with the negative ions (anions).
3.5 Neutralisation Reactions
Definition: An acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water.
General form: Acid + Base → Salt + Water
Characteristics:
- Always produces salt and water
- A type of double displacement reaction
- pH moves toward 7 (neutral)
Examples:
- Acid + Metal hydroxide → Salt + Water
- HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H₂O(l)
- H₂SO₄(aq) + 2KOH(aq) → K₂SO₄(aq) + 2H₂O(l)
- 2HNO₃(aq) + Ca(OH)₂(aq) → Ca(NO₃)₂(aq) + 2H₂O(l)
- Acid + Metal oxide → Salt + Water
- 2HCl(aq) + CuO(s) → CuCl₂(aq) + H₂O(l)
- H₂SO₄(aq) + ZnO(s) → ZnSO₄(aq) + H₂O(l)
- Acid + Metal carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
- 2HCl(aq) + CaCO₃(s) → CaCl₂(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g)
- H₂SO₄(aq) + Na₂CO₃(aq) → Na₂SO₄(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g)
Important: When an acid reacts with a carbonate, three products are formed: salt, water, and carbon dioxide gas.
3.6 Combustion Reactions
Definition: A substance reacts rapidly with oxygen, releasing energy as heat and light.
General form: Fuel + Oxygen → Products + Energy
Characteristics:
- Oxygen is always a reactant
- Energy (heat and light) is released
- Usually produces oxides
Types of Combustion:
1. Complete Combustion
- Plenty of oxygen available
- Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water
Examples:
- CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) → CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g)
- C₃H₈(g) + 5O₂(g) → 3CO₂(g) + 4H₂O(g)
- 2C₂H₆(g) + 7O₂(g) → 4CO₂(g) + 6H₂O(g)
2. Incomplete Combustion
- Limited oxygen supply
- Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon monoxide (or Carbon) + Water
Examples:
- 2CH₄(g) + 3O₂(g) → 2CO(g) + 4H₂O(g)
- CH₄(g) + O₂(g) → C(s) + 2H₂O(g)
3. Combustion of Elements
- 2Mg(s) + O₂(g) → 2MgO(s)
- S(s) + O₂(g) → SO₂(g)
- 4P(s) + 5O₂(g) → 2P₂O₅(s)
Safety Note: Incomplete combustion produces carbon monoxide (CO), which is a poisonous gas. This is why proper ventilation is important when burning fuels.
Worked Example 3.1
Question: Identify the type of reaction and balance the equation:
a) Mg + O₂ → MgO
b) CuCO₃ → CuO + CO₂
c) Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu
d) HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
Solution:
a) Combination reaction
2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO
b) Decomposition reaction
CuCO₃ → CuO + CO₂ (already balanced)
c) Single displacement reaction
Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu (already balanced)
d) Neutralisation reaction
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O (already balanced)
Worked Example 3.2
Question: Complete and balance these equations:
a) Ca + O₂ →
b) H₂SO₄ + Mg(OH)₂ →
c) C₂H₆ + O₂ → (complete combustion)
Solution:
a) 2Ca + O₂ → 2CaO (Combination)
b) H₂SO₄ + Mg(OH)₂ → MgSO₄ + 2H₂O (Neutralisation)
c) 2C₂H₆ + 7O₂ → 4CO₂ + 6H₂O (Combustion)
Practice Problems 3.1
- Identify the type of reaction:
- a) 2H₂O₂ → 2H₂O + O₂
- b) Fe + S → FeS
- c) Cl₂ + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br₂
- d) AgNO₃ + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO₃
- Complete and balance:
- a) Al + O₂ →
- b) 2HNO₃ + Ca(OH)₂ →
- c) Mg + H₂SO₄ →
- d) C₄H₁₀ + O₂ → (complete combustion)
Answers:
- a) Decomposition
- b) Combination
- c) Single displacement
- d) Double displacement
- a) 4Al + 3O₂ → 2Al₂O₃
- b) 2HNO₃ + Ca(OH)₂ → Ca(NO₃)₂ + 2H₂O
- c) Mg + H₂SO₄ → MgSO₄ + H₂
- d) 2C₄H₁₀ + 13O₂ → 8CO₂ + 10H₂O
Summary: Types of Reactions
- Combination: A + B → AB
- Decomposition: AB → A + B
- Single Displacement: A + BC → AC + B
- Double Displacement: AB + CD → AD + CB
- Neutralisation: Acid + Base → Salt + Water
- Combustion: Fuel + O₂ → Oxides + Energy
TOPIC 4: THE MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY
4.1 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
Definition: The relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average mass of an atom of an element compared to 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
Key Points:
- It has no units (it's a ratio)
- Found on the periodic table
- Takes into account isotopes and their abundance
Examples:
- Ar of Hydrogen (H) = 1
- Ar of Carbon (C) = 12
- Ar of Oxygen (O) = 16
- Ar of Sodium (Na) = 23
- Ar of Chlorine (Cl) = 35.5
- Ar of Calcium (Ca) = 40
4.2 Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) and Relative Formula Mass
Definition: The relative molecular mass (Mr) is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule.
How to Calculate Mr:
- Write the formula
- Count the number of each type of atom
- Multiply each Ar by the number of atoms
- Add all values together
Worked Example 4.1
Question: Calculate the Mr of:
a) H₂O
b) CO₂
c) H₂SO₄
d) Ca(OH)₂
Solution:
a) H₂O
- H: 2 × 1 = 2
- O: 1 × 16 = 16
- Mr = 2 + 16 = 18
b) CO₂
- C: 1 × 12 = 12
- O: 2 × 16 = 32
- Mr = 12 + 32 = 44
c) H₂SO₄
- H: 2 × 1 = 2
- S: 1 × 32 = 32
- O: 4 × 16 = 64
- Mr = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98
d) Ca(OH)₂
- Ca: 1 × 40 = 40
- O: 2 × 16 = 32
- H: 2 × 1 = 2
- Mr = 40 + 32 + 2 = 74
4.3 The Mole Concept
Definition: A mole is the amount of substance that contains 6.02 × 10²³ particles (atoms, molecules, or ions).
Key Points:
- Symbol: mol
- 6.02 × 10²³ is called Avogadro's number (NA)
- One mole of any substance contains the same number of particles
- The molar mass (in grams) equals the relative atomic or molecular mass
Examples:
- 1 mole of carbon atoms = 12 g = 6.02 × 10²³ atoms
- 1 mole of water molecules = 18 g = 6.02 × 10²³ molecules
- 1 mole of sodium chloride = 58.5 g = 6.02 × 10²³ formula units
4.4 Important Formulas
1. Number of moles (n):
n = mass (m) / molar mass (M)
Where:
- n = number of moles (mol)
- m = mass (g)
- M = molar mass (g/mol)
2. Mass:
m = n × M
3. Number of particles:
Number of particles = n × NA
Where NA = 6.02 × 10²³
4. Molar mass:
M = m / n
Worked Example 4.2
Question: Calculate the number of moles in:
a) 40 g of calcium (Ca = 40)
b) 9 g of water (H₂O, Mr = 18)
c) 49 g of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄, Mr = 98)
Solution:
a) n = m/M = 40/40 = 1 mol
b) n = m/M = 9/18 = 0.5 mol
c) n = m/M = 49/98 = 0.5 mol
Worked Example 4.3
Question: Calculate the mass of:
a) 2 moles of sodium (Na = 23)
b) 0.25 moles of carbon dioxide (CO₂, Mr = 44)
c) 5 moles of ammonia (NH₃, Mr = 17)
Solution:
a) m = n × M = 2 × 23 = 46 g
b) m = n × M = 0.25 × 44 = 11 g
c) m = n × M = 5 × 17 = 85 g
Worked Example 4.4
Question: How many molecules are in 36 g of water? (H₂O, Mr = 18)
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate moles
n = m/M = 36/18 = 2 mol
Step 2: Calculate number of molecules
Number of molecules = n × NA
= 2 × 6.02 × 10²³
= 1.204 × 10²⁴ molecules
4.5 Percentage Composition
Definition: The percentage by mass of each element in a compound.
Formula:
% of element = (Ar × number of atoms / Mr of compound) × 100%
Worked Example 4.5
Question: Calculate the percentage composition of:
a) Hydrogen in water (H₂O)
b) Nitrogen in ammonia (NH₃)
Solution:
a) H₂O (Mr = 18)
% H = (2 × 1 / 18) × 100% = 11.1%
% O = (1 × 16 / 18) × 100% = 88.9%
b) NH₃ (Mr = 17)
% N = (1 × 14 / 17) × 100% = 82.4%
% H = (3 × 1 / 17) × 100% = 17.6%
4.6 Empirical and Molecular Formulas
Empirical Formula: The simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound.
Molecular Formula: The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
Examples:
- Glucose: Empirical formula = CH₂O, Molecular formula = C₆H₁₂O₆
- Ethene: Empirical formula = CH₂, Molecular formula = C₂H₄
- Hydrogen peroxide: Empirical formula = HO, Molecular formula = H₂O₂
Worked Example 4.6
Question: A compound contains 40% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen, and 53.3% oxygen by mass. Find the empirical formula. (C = 12, H = 1, O = 16)
Solution:
Step 1: Assume 100 g of compound
- C: 40 g
- H: 6.7 g
- O: 53.3 g
Step 2: Convert to moles
- C: 40/12 = 3.33 mol
- H: 6.7/1 = 6.7 mol
- O: 53.3/16 = 3.33 mol
Step 3: Divide by smallest
- C: 3.33/3.33 = 1
- H: 6.7/3.33 = 2
- O: 3.33/3.33 = 1
Step 4: Write empirical formula
CH₂O
4.7 Stoichiometry
Definition: Stoichiometry is the calculation of quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions.
Key Principle: The coefficients in a balanced equation show the mole ratio of reactants and products.
Example:
2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
This tells us:
- 2 moles of H₂ react with 1 mole of O₂
- To produce 2 moles of H₂O
- Mole ratio is 2:1:2
Worked Example 4.7
Question: How many moles of oxygen are needed to react completely with 4 moles of hydrogen?
2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
Solution:
From the equation: 2 mol H₂ : 1 mol O₂
If 2 mol H₂ needs 1 mol O₂
Then 4 mol H₂ needs (4 × 1)/2 = 2 mol O₂
Worked Example 4.8
Question: Calculate the mass of water produced when 4 g of hydrogen reacts completely with oxygen. (H = 1, O = 16)
2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate moles of H₂
n(H₂) = 4/2 = 2 mol
Step 2: Use mole ratio
From equation: 2 mol H₂ produces 2 mol H₂O
So 2 mol H₂ produces 2 mol H₂O
Step 3: Calculate mass of H₂O
Mr(H₂O) = 18
m = n × M = 2 × 18 = 36 g
Worked Example 4.9
Question: What mass of carbon dioxide is produced when 24 g of carbon burns completely in oxygen? (C = 12, O = 16)
C + O₂ → CO₂
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate moles of C
n(C) = 24/12 = 2 mol
Step 2: Use mole ratio
From equation: 1 mol C produces 1 mol CO₂
So 2 mol C produces 2 mol CO₂
Step 3: Calculate mass of CO₂
Mr(CO₂) = 44
m = 2 × 44 = 88 g
4.8 Limiting Reactants
Definition: The limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely used up first in a reaction. It limits the amount of product formed.
How to identify the limiting reactant:
- Calculate moles of each reactant
- Use the balanced equation to find the mole ratio
- Determine which reactant will run out first
Worked Example 4.10
Question: 10 g of calcium reacts with 10 g of oxygen. Which is the limiting reactant? What mass of calcium oxide is formed? (Ca = 40, O = 16)
2Ca + O₂ → 2CaO
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate moles
n(Ca) = 10/40 = 0.25 mol
n(O₂) = 10/32 = 0.3125 mol
Step 2: Check mole ratio
From equation: 2 mol Ca needs 1 mol O₂
So 0.25 mol Ca needs 0.25/2 = 0.125 mol O₂
Step 3: Identify limiting reactant
We have 0.3125 mol O₂ but only need 0.125 mol
Calcium is the limiting reactant (it will run out first)
Step 4: Calculate product
From equation: 2 mol Ca produces 2 mol CaO
So 0.25 mol Ca produces 0.25 mol CaO
Mr(CaO) = 56
m = 0.25 × 56 = 14 g
Practice Problems 4.1
- Calculate the Mr of:
- a) NaCl
- b) CaCO₃
- c) HNO₃
- Calculate the number of moles in:
- a) 23 g of sodium
- b) 88 g of CO₂
- c) 98 g of H₂SO₄
- Calculate the mass of:
- a) 0.5 mol of oxygen gas (O₂)
- b) 3 mol of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃)
- How many grams of oxygen are needed to react with 12 g of magnesium?
- 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO
Answers:
- a) 58.5
- b) 100
- c) 63
- a) 1 mol
- b) 2 mol
- c) 1 mol
- a) 16 g
- b) 300 g
- Step 1: n(Mg) = 12/24 = 0.5 mol
- Step 2: From equation, 2 mol Mg needs 1 mol O₂
- So 0.5 mol Mg needs 0.25 mol O₂
- Step 3: m(O₂) = 0.25 × 32 = 8 g
Summary: Mole Concept and Stoichiometry
- Relative atomic mass (Ar) is found on the periodic table
- Relative molecular mass (Mr) = sum of all Ar values
- 1 mole = 6.02 × 10²³ particles
- n = m/M (moles = mass/molar mass)
- Use balanced equations to find mole ratios
- The limiting reactant determines the amount of product formed
TOPIC 5: ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
5.1 Introduction to Energy Changes
All chemical reactions involve energy changes. Energy can be:
- Released to the surroundings (exothermic)
- Absorbed from the surroundings (endothermic)
The energy is usually in the form of heat, but can also be light, sound, or electrical energy.
5.2 Exothermic Reactions
Definition: Reactions that release energy to the surroundings.
Characteristics:
- Temperature of surroundings increases
- Energy is given out
- Products have less energy than reactants
- ΔH is negative (ΔH < 0)
Examples:
- Combustion reactions
- Burning wood, coal, petrol
- CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + Energy
- Neutralisation reactions
- HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O + Energy
- The mixture gets hot
- Respiration
- C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy
- Releases energy for body functions
- Reaction of metals with water or acids
- Ca + 2H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + H₂ + Energy
- The mixture gets hot
- Dissolving some substances
- Dissolving sodium hydroxide in water
- Dissolving concentrated sulfuric acid in water
Everyday Examples:
- Hand warmers
- Self-heating cans
- Fireworks
- Cooking food
5.3 Endothermic Reactions
Definition: Reactions that absorb energy from the surroundings.
Characteristics:
- Temperature of surroundings decreases
- Energy is taken in
- Products have more energy than reactants
- ΔH is positive (ΔH > 0)
Examples:
- Thermal decomposition
- CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂ (requires heating)
- 2Pb(NO₃)₂ → 2PbO + 4NO₂ + O₂ (requires heating)
- Photosynthesis
- 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
- Absorbs light energy from the sun
- Dissolving some substances
- Dissolving ammonium nitrate in water
- The mixture gets cold
- Electrolysis
- 2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂ (requires electrical energy)
Everyday Examples:
- Cold packs (sports injuries)
- Melting ice
- Evaporation of water
- Cooking an egg
5.4 Energy Profile Diagrams
Energy profile diagrams show the energy changes during a reaction.
Exothermic Reaction Diagram:
Energy ↑ | Reactants | ╱╲ | ╱ ╲ Activation Energy | ╱ ╲ | ╱ ╲_____ Products | ↓ Energy released |________________→ Progress of reaction
Endothermic Reaction Diagram:
Energy ↑ Products | ___╱ | ╱ ↑ Energy absorbed | ╱ | ╱ Activation Energy | ___╱ | Reactants |________________→ Progress of reaction
5.5 Activation Energy
Definition: The minimum energy needed for a reaction to start.
Key Points:
- All reactions need activation energy
- It's the energy needed to break bonds in reactants
- Represented by Ea
- Catalysts lower the activation energy
Think of it like: Pushing a ball over a hill. You need energy to get it to the top (activation energy), then it rolls down the other side (reaction proceeds).
5.6 Bond Breaking and Bond Formation
Important Principle:
- Breaking bonds requires energy (endothermic process)
- Forming bonds releases energy (exothermic process)
In a chemical reaction:
Exothermic reaction:
- Energy released by forming new bonds > Energy needed to break old bonds
- Net release of energy
Endothermic reaction:
- Energy needed to break old bonds > Energy released by forming new bonds
- Net absorption of energy
Worked Example 5.1
Question: Classify each reaction as exothermic or endothermic:
a) Burning methane in air
b) Decomposition of limestone (CaCO₃)
c) Neutralisation of acid with alkali
d) Photosynthesis in plants
Solution:
a) Exothermic - combustion releases heat and light
b) Endothermic - requires continuous heating
c) Exothermic - neutralisation releases heat
d) Endothermic - requires light energy from sun
Worked Example 5.2
Question: Draw an energy profile diagram for the combustion of methane, which releases 890 kJ/mol of energy.
Solution:
Energy (kJ) ↑ | CH₄ + 2O₂ | ╱╲ | ╱ ╲ Ea | ╱ ╲ | ╱ ╲_____ CO₂ + 2H₂O | ↓ 890 kJ released |________________→ Progress of reaction
This is exothermic because products are lower in energy than reactants.
5.7 Measuring Energy Changes
Simple Calorimetry:
To measure the energy released or absorbed in a reaction:
Formula:
Energy change (Q) = m × c × ΔT
Where:
- Q = energy change (Joules, J)
- m = mass of solution (g)
- c = specific heat capacity (4.2 J/g°C for water)
- ΔT = temperature change (°C)
Worked Example 5.3
Question: When 50 cm³ of 1 M HCl is mixed with 50 cm³ of 1 M NaOH, the temperature rises from 20°C to 27°C. Calculate the energy released. (Assume density = 1 g/cm³ and c = 4.2 J/g°C)
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate total mass
Total volume = 50 + 50 = 100 cm³
Mass = 100 g (since density = 1 g/cm³)
Step 2: Calculate temperature change
ΔT = 27 - 20 = 7°C
Step 3: Calculate energy
Q = m × c × ΔT
Q = 100 × 4.2 × 7
Q = 2940 J = 2.94 kJ
This is an exothermic reaction (temperature increased).
Practice Problems 5.1
- State whether each reaction is exothermic or endothermic:
- a) Dissolving ammonium chloride in water (gets cold)
- b) Rusting of iron
- c) Melting ice
- d) Burning coal
- Explain why all reactions need activation energy.
- In a reaction, 436 kJ is needed to break bonds and 484 kJ is released when new bonds form. Is this reaction exothermic or endothermic? Calculate the energy change.
Answers:
- a) Endothermic
- b) Exothermic
- c) Endothermic
- d) Exothermic
- Activation energy is needed to break the bonds in the reactants so that new bonds can form in the products. Without this initial energy input, the reaction cannot start.
- Energy released = 484 kJ
- Energy absorbed = 436 kJ
- Net energy = 484 - 436 = 48 kJ released
- Exothermic (more energy released than absorbed)
Summary: Energy Changes
- Exothermic: Releases energy, temperature increases, ΔH < 0
- Endothermic: Absorbs energy, temperature decreases, ΔH > 0
- Activation energy: Minimum energy needed to start a reaction
- Bond breaking: Requires energy (endothermic)
- Bond forming: Releases energy (exothermic)
TOPIC 6: RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
6.1 What is Rate of Reaction?
Definition: The rate of reaction is the speed at which reactants are converted into products.
It can be measured by:
- How fast reactants are used up
- How fast products are formed
Units: Usually measured in:
- g/s (grams per second)
- cm³/s (volume per second)
- mol/s (moles per second)
Fast reactions:
- Explosions
- Neutralisation
- Precipitation
Slow reactions:
- Rusting
- Ripening of fruits
- Weathering of rocks
6.2 Measuring Rate of Reaction
Methods:
- Measuring gas produced
- Collect gas in a syringe or over water
- Measure volume at regular time intervals
- Measuring mass loss
- Place reaction on a balance
- Record mass at regular intervals
- Used when gas escapes
- Measuring time for precipitate to form
- Place flask over a mark (X)
- Time how long until mark disappears
- Measuring colour change
- Use a colorimeter
- Measure intensity of colour over time
6.3 Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction
Five main factors affect how fast a reaction occurs:
- Temperature
- Concentration (for solutions)
- Pressure (for gases)
- Surface area (for solids)
- Catalysts
6.4 Effect of Temperature
Rule: Increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction.
Why?
- Particles move faster at higher temperatures
- More frequent collisions
- More energetic collisions
- More particles have energy ≥ activation energy
General Rule: For many reactions, increasing temperature by 10°C approximately doubles the rate.
Examples:
- Food cooks faster at higher temperatures
- Food spoils faster in hot weather
- Refrigerators slow down decay
Practical Example:
Marble chips + Hydrochloric acid → Calcium chloride + Water + Carbon dioxide
At 20°C: Reaction takes 60 seconds
At 30°C: Reaction takes 30 seconds
At 40°C: Reaction takes 15 seconds
6.5 Effect of Concentration
Rule: Increasing concentration increases the rate of reaction.
Why?
- More particles in the same volume
- More frequent collisions
- More successful collisions per second
Examples:
- Concentrated acid reacts faster than dilute acid
- Pure oxygen supports combustion better than air (21% oxygen)
Practical Example:
Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid → Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
With 2 M HCl: Reaction takes 20 seconds
With 1 M HCl: Reaction takes 40 seconds
With 0.5 M HCl: Reaction takes 80 seconds
6.6 Effect of Pressure (for Gases)
Rule: Increasing pressure increases the rate of reaction for gases.
Why?
- Gas particles are closer together
- More frequent collisions
- Same effect as increasing concentration
Examples:
- Combustion engines compress fuel-air mixture
- Industrial processes often use high pressure
6.7 Effect of Surface Area
Rule: Increasing surface area increases the rate of reaction.
Why?
- More particles are exposed
- More collisions can occur
- Reaction happens faster
How to increase surface area:
- Break solid into smaller pieces
- Grind into powder
- Use thin strips instead of lumps
Examples:
- Powdered sugar dissolves faster than sugar cubes
- Wood shavings burn faster than logs
- Powdered limestone reacts faster than marble chips
Practical Example:
Calcium carbonate + Hydrochloric acid → Calcium chloride + Water + Carbon dioxide
Large marble chips: Reaction takes 120 seconds
Small marble chips: Reaction takes 60 seconds
Powdered chalk: Reaction takes 20 seconds
6.8 Effect of Catalysts
Definition: A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of reaction without being used up.
Characteristics of catalysts:
- Speed up reactions
- Not used up (can be recovered unchanged)
- Only small amounts needed
- Specific to particular reactions
- Lower the activation energy
How catalysts work:
- Provide an alternative pathway
- Lower activation energy
- More particles have enough energy to react
Examples:
- Manganese(IV) oxide (MnO₂)
- Catalyses decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
- 2H₂O₂ → 2H₂O + O₂
- Iron
- Catalyses production of ammonia (Haber process)
- N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃
- Platinum
- Catalyses many reactions in car catalytic converters
- Enzymes (biological catalysts)
- Amylase breaks down starch
- Catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide in cells
Energy Profile with Catalyst:
Energy ↑ | Reactants | ╱╲ Without catalyst (higher Ea) | ╱ ╲ | ╱ ╱╲ ╲ With catalyst (lower Ea) | ╱ ╱ ╲ ╲_____ Products |________________→ Progress of reaction
6.9 Collision Theory
The Collision Theory explains how reactions occur:
For a reaction to occur:
- Particles must collide
- Collisions must have enough energy (≥ activation energy)
- Particles must collide with the correct orientation
Successful collision: Leads to reaction
Unsuccessful collision: Particles bounce apart unchanged
Factors that increase rate increase:
- Frequency of collisions (temperature, concentration, pressure, surface area)
- Energy of collisions (temperature)
- OR lower the energy needed (catalysts)
Worked Example 6.1
Question: Explain why magnesium ribbon reacts faster with 2 M HCl than with 1 M HCl.
Solution:
The 2 M HCl has a higher concentration of H⁺ ions than 1 M HCl. This means:
- There are more H⁺ ions in the same volume
- More frequent collisions between Mg atoms and H⁺ ions
- More successful collisions per second
- Therefore, the rate of reaction is faster
Worked Example 6.2
Question: A student investigates the effect of temperature on the reaction between sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid. At 20°C, a precipitate forms after 80 seconds. At 40°C, it forms after 20 seconds. Calculate how many times faster the reaction is at 40°C.
Solution:
Rate is inversely proportional to time.
Rate at 20°C = 1/80 = 0.0125 s⁻¹
Rate at 40°C = 1/20 = 0.05 s⁻¹
Times faster = 0.05/0.0125 = 4 times faster
Or simply: 80/20 = 4 times faster
Worked Example 6.3
Question: Describe and explain how you would investigate the effect of surface area on the rate of reaction between marble chips and hydrochloric acid.
Solution:
Method:
- Measure 50 cm³ of 1 M HCl into a conical flask
- Place flask on a balance and record mass
- Add 5 g of large marble chips
- Record mass every 30 seconds for 5 minutes
- Repeat with 5 g of small marble chips (same total mass)
- Repeat with 5 g of powdered marble
Variables:
- Independent: Surface area (size of marble chips)
- Dependent: Mass loss (or volume of CO₂ produced)
- Control: Mass of marble, volume and concentration of acid, temperature
Expected results:
- Powdered marble reacts fastest (most mass loss)
- Small chips react at medium rate
- Large chips react slowest (least mass loss)
Explanation:
Smaller particles have larger surface area. More marble particles are exposed to acid, so more collisions occur per second, increasing the rate.
Practice Problems 6.1
- List five factors that affect the rate of reaction.
- Explain why food is stored in a refrigerator.
- A student adds 0.5 g of magnesium ribbon to 50 cm³ of 1 M HCl. Suggest three ways to make the reaction faster.
- Explain why a catalyst is not used up during a reaction.
- Zinc reacts with sulfuric acid. At 25°C, 50 cm³ of hydrogen is produced in 40 seconds. At 35°C, 50 cm³ is produced in 20 seconds. How many times faster is the reaction at 35°C?
Answers:
- Temperature, concentration, pressure, surface area, catalysts
- Low temperature slows down the rate of decay reactions. Bacteria and enzymes work more slowly in cold conditions, so food stays fresh longer.
- Use higher concentration of HCl
- Increase temperature
- Cut magnesium into smaller pieces
- A catalyst provides an alternative pathway with lower activation energy. It is not chemically changed during the reaction, so it can be used again and again.
- 40/20 = 2 times faster
Summary: Rate of Reaction
- Rate = how fast reactants form products
- Increasing temperature → faster rate (particles move faster, more energetic collisions)
- Increasing concentration → faster rate (more particles, more collisions)
- Increasing pressure (gases) → faster rate (particles closer, more collisions)
- Increasing surface area → faster rate (more particles exposed)
- Adding catalyst → faster rate (lowers activation energy)
- Collision theory: Particles must collide with enough energy and correct orientation
TOPIC 7: REVERSIBLE REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM (Form 4 Level)
7.1 Reversible Reactions
Definition: A reversible reaction is one that can proceed in both forward and backward directions.
Symbol: ⇌ (double arrow)
Examples:
- Ammonium chloride decomposition:
- NH₄Cl(s) ⇌ NH₃(g) + HCl(g)
- Heating: NH₄Cl breaks down into NH₃ and HCl
- Cooling: NH₃ and HCl recombine to form NH₄Cl
- Hydrated copper sulfate:
- CuSO₄·5H₂O(s) ⇌ CuSO₄(s) + 5H₂O(g)
- Heating: Blue crystals turn white, water is driven off
- Adding water: White powder turns blue again
- Nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide:
- 2NO₂(g) ⇌ N₂O₄(g)
- Brown gas ⇌ Colourless gas
- Haber process (ammonia production):
- N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) ⇌ 2NH₃(g)
Key Point: In a reversible reaction:
- Forward reaction: Reactants → Products
- Backward reaction: Products → Reactants
7.2 Dynamic Equilibrium
Definition: Dynamic equilibrium occurs when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the backward reaction in a closed system.
Characteristics of equilibrium:
- Closed system - no substances can enter or leave
- Constant macroscopic properties - concentrations, colour, pressure remain constant
- Dynamic - both reactions continue, but at equal rates
- No net change - amounts of reactants and products stay constant
Important: At equilibrium:
- Reactions have NOT stopped
- Both forward and backward reactions continue
- Rates are equal, so no overall change is observed
Example:
N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) ⇌ 2NH₃(g)
At equilibrium:
- N₂ and H₂ are still forming NH₃ (forward)
- NH₃ is still breaking down to N₂ and H₂ (backward)
- Rate forward = Rate backward
- Concentrations remain constant
7.3 Le Chatelier's Principle
Definition: If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change, the system will adjust to counteract that change.
In simple terms: The equilibrium will shift to oppose any change made to it.
Changes that affect equilibrium:
- Concentration
- Temperature
- Pressure (for gases)
Note: Catalysts do NOT affect the position of equilibrium (they speed up both forward and backward reactions equally).
7.4 Effect of Concentration Changes
Rule:
- If you increase the concentration of a reactant, equilibrium shifts to the right (more products)
- If you increase the concentration of a product, equilibrium shifts to the left (more reactants)
- If you decrease a concentration, equilibrium shifts to replace it
Example:
N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) ⇌ 2NH₃(g)
- Add more N₂: Equilibrium shifts right (more NH₃ produced)
- Remove NH₃: Equilibrium shifts right (more NH₃ produced to replace it)
- Add more NH₃: Equilibrium shifts left (more N₂ and H₂ produced)
7.5 Effect of Temperature Changes
Rule:
- If you increase temperature, equilibrium shifts in the endothermic direction (absorbs heat)
- If you decrease temperature, equilibrium shifts in the exothermic direction (releases heat)
Example 1:
N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) ⇌ 2NH₃(g) ΔH = -92 kJ/mol (exothermic)
- Increase temperature: Equilibrium shifts left (less NH₃)
- Decrease temperature: Equilibrium shifts right (more NH₃)
Example 2:
2NO₂(g) ⇌ N₂O₄(g) ΔH = -58 kJ/mol (exothermic)
Brown ⇌ Colourless
- Heat the mixture: Becomes browner (shifts left to NO₂)
- Cool the mixture: Becomes paler (shifts right to N₂O₄)
7.6 Effect of Pressure Changes (Gases Only)
Rule:
- Increase pressure: Equilibrium shifts to the side with fewer gas molecules
- Decrease pressure: Equilibrium shifts to the side with more gas molecules
How to count molecules:
Look at the coefficients in the balanced equation.
Example 1:
N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) ⇌ 2NH₃(g)
Left side: 1 + 3 = 4 molecules
Right side: 2 molecules
- Increase pressure: Shifts right (fewer molecules)
- Decrease pressure: Shifts left (more molecules)
Example 2:
H₂(g) + I₂(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
Left side: 1 + 1 = 2 molecules
Right side: 2 molecules
- Pressure change has NO effect (equal molecules on both sides)
7.7 Effect of Catalysts
Important: Catalysts do NOT change the position of equilibrium.
What catalysts do:
- Speed up both forward and backward reactions equally
- Help equilibrium to be reached faster
- Do not affect the amounts of products and reactants at equilibrium
Industrial importance:
- Catalysts allow equilibrium to be reached quickly
- This increases production rate
- Saves time and energy
Worked Example 7.1
Question: Consider the equilibrium:
2SO₂(g) + O₂(g) ⇌ 2SO₃(g) ΔH = -197 kJ/mol
Predict the effect on the equilibrium position of:
a) Increasing the concentration of SO₂
b) Removing SO₃
c) Increasing temperature
d) Increasing pressure
e) Adding a catalyst
Solution:
a) Shifts right - more SO₃ produced (system uses up added SO₂)
b) Shifts right - more SO₃ produced (system replaces removed SO₃)
c) Shifts left - less SO₃ produced (forward reaction is exothermic, so equilibrium